From Pre-Departure to Return: Understanding Labor Migration Dynamics in Nepal

With over 2,000 people leaving the country every day, labor migration is a common reality in Nepal. What motivates Nepalese workers to migrate abroad, return and potentially leave again? And what kind of support do they need to make informed decisions about safe migration and reintegration into their home communities? Two joint initiatives by the Nepalese government and the Swiss government address these questions.

Since the early 1990s, labor migration has played a pivotal role in Nepal’s economic development. It has been a critical source of income, contributing significantly to economic growth and poverty reduction. According to Nepal’s Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE), during the 2023-2024 fiscal year 741,297 work permits were issued, with most migrants heading to the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Malaysia. Remittances from migrant workers, which equalled 25.3% of Nepal’s GDP in 2024, place the country among the top ten most remittance-dependent nations globally.

Why migrate?

A multitude of factors drive labor migration in Nepal. Every year, around 500,000 young people enter the labor market, although the country can only absorb a minority of them. Low wages, poverty, political instability and declining agricultural yields are also contributing to mass emigration. Other factors that influence women in particular include patriarchal social norms, gender inequality, violence and stigma. However, women represent a minority of migrants. Of the total official migrant worker population in 2023-24, around 11% are women. This can be largely explained by the fact that they are banned from travelling to the Gulf states to work as domestic workers due to the many cases of abuse and exploitation. Despite these restrictions, they continue to leave but are forced to use irregular channels, further exacerbating their vulnerabilities.

While migration brings benefits, it is not without risks. Some migrant workers are cheated by their recruitment agencies and have to pay exorbitant fees, leaving them in debt. In destination countries, low-skilled migrants tend to work in unhealthy and dangerous conditions and are often exposed to the risks of fraud, exploitation and abuse. Family members left behind, particularly women, are often stigmatized, discriminated against and face increased responsibilities at home.

What happens on the way back?

Labor migration in Nepal is typically temporary and circular. Most workers spend an average of two years abroad before returning home. In 2021–2022, following the COVID-19 pandemic, Nepal saw the return of 470,978 migrant workers. Yet reintegration poses significant challenges. Many struggle to find employment, lack financial resources to start businesses, or face community stigma, particularly in the case of women.

A 2021 publication by the International Organization for Migration revealed that 24% of men and 60% of women reported being unemployed more than six months after their return, and only 22% of returnees used the skills they acquired abroad in their current jobs. Social reintegration is equally difficult due to family fragmentation, strained relationships and the trauma of migration experiences. These obstacles hinder sustainable reintegration and often push returnees to migrate again.

It is in this context that Helvetas is implementing two projects. The first was launched 14 years ago and focuses mainly on prospective migrants prior to embarking on foreign employment. The second started in 2022 and primarily targets returnee migrant workers who have returned home.

Promoting safer migration and reintegration

The Safer Migration (SaMi) program, which began in 2011, aims to ensure that migrants and their families are better protected by government institutions and enjoy safer working conditions abroad. The program focuses on five components: i) access to quality information and advice on safe labor migration; ii) access to legal services; iii) support for psychosocial services; iv) financial literacy; and v) skills development. To date, it has reached 38 districts and 156 local governments and is expected to expand to 76 districts and 267 local governments by July 2025.

Through the program, nearly three million migrant workers and their families have been sensitized and supported to make informed decisions about their migration journey, to access pre-departure skills training and to make use of the financial and legal services provided throughout the migration cycle.

SaMi has also supported the establishment of 57 Migrant Resource Centers (MRCs), 18 sub-MRCs and one national MRC (NMRC). These centers provide the full range of labor migration services, including the processing and transmission of legal complaints, and referring migrants to specialized entities where necessary. The program also supports migrant workers facing difficulties in the countries of destination, informing them how to report abuse, exploitation or other problems. In addition, the program has contributed to the introduction and implementation of a digital system enabling citizens to apply for or renew their work permits online, which is now entirely owned by the government.

The Reintegration of Returnee Migrant Workers (ReMi) project started in 2022. This pilot project addresses the drivers of migration and supports the social and economic reintegration of returnee migrant workers. The project adopts a two-pronged approach: (i) it focuses on the services required by returnee migrant workers and their families (demand side) and (ii) on the roles of the three levels of government in creating an enabling and protective environment for service provision (supply side), alongside the private sector. Twenty local governments in the provinces of Koshi and Madhesh have pledged financial contributions so far, while the Employment Service Centers (ESCs) at the local government level are the main point of contact and delivery of economic and social services offered by the project through referrals to the corresponding entities (financial institutions, health centers, etc.).

The two projects draw on each other's expertise and resources, covering the entire migration cycle — from the pre-departure phase to return. For example, information on return and reintegration is included in the material distributed to prospective migrants before their departure. Both projects ensure that anyone seeking employment receives comprehensive information, including on the range of services available, and is appropriately referred, either to the ESC for domestic employment or to the MRC for work abroad.

Anchoring the project at the institutional level

The main challenge, however, remains sustainability through institutional anchoring at all three levels of government. State restructuring and local elections in 2017 opened new opportunities to reshape the relationship between citizens and local authorities. Federalization has also enabled migrants and their families to advocate for better and decentralized services, and for local and provincial governments to provide better employment opportunities for migrant workers.

Both projects work closely with all levels of government (federal, provincial and local). They aim to improve the skills of civil servants and provide them with technical assistance to develop or strengthen migrant inclusive policies and effective governance measures in the field of migration and reintegration assistance. The two projects have also helped the government to exercise its roles and responsibilities in the area of migration, which are gradually being devolved to the provincial and local levels. This is not always easy; there are numerous challenges associated with coordination, turnover, limited financial and human resources, and the fact that the provincial level is recent, having not existed prior to the federalization process.

Despite these challenges, the government is gradually taking ownership of the process, allocating more and more budget to migration-related services, providing integrated services to migrants, developing and reinforcing inclusive policies and extending certain services to areas not targeted by the two projects. Over the next few years, SaMi aims to consolidate its achievements by institutionalizing all labor migration services at the government level and replicating most of its interventions across the whole country. At the end of 2028, all SaMi services should be fully anchored into the corresponding government institutions and function independently. ReMi, for its part, is planning to draw lessons learned from this pilot phase and extend its activities beyond the current intervention area.

A collective commitment to managing migration

Migration remains central to Nepal’s development, but for many, it is still fraught with risks. From unethical recruitment practices to challenges in reintegration, gaps persist across the migration cycle. This underlines the importance of developing effective and efficient solutions to the main challenges facing Nepalese people before they leave, but also during their stay abroad and upon return.

Nepal’s federal system provides a unique opportunity to adopt a more integrated approach to migration management. Establishing and strengthening inclusive services for migrants requires significant support from various stakeholders. It is therefore crucial to involve all relevant actors, foster synergies with existing projects, and anchor the services at the institutional level to achieve meaningful, large-scale results with long-term benefits. Safeguarding migrant rights depends on a collective commitment to scaling up interventions, building partnerships, and embedding migration services within Nepal’s governance framework. Only then can migration become a truly transformative force for the country’s development — benefiting not just migrants and their families, but Nepal as a whole.

About the Authors

Aline Herrera is a Migration Advisor at Helvetas.

Madushika Lansakara is the Team Leader for the ReMi Project at Helvetas Nepal.

Sita Ghimire is a former Team Leader for the SaMi Program at Helvetas Nepal.